How Did the Aesthetics of Light and Darkness Change in Art From the Medieval Time to the Baroque

"…hence, I would remind you, O painter! To dress your figures in the lightest colors you tin, since, if y'all put them in dark colors, they will be in too slight relief, and inconspicuous in distance. And the reason is that shadows of all objects are dark. And if you make a dress night, in that location is trivial variety in the lights and shadows, while in lite colors there are many grades."

– Leonardo da Vinci

Art reached its highest form in the Renaissance period, with the artists achieving perfection in terms of technique and clarity. The invention of linear perspective and developments in the usage of lights and shadows revolutionized visual arts, fine arts, sculpture and architecture in the 2 hundred years between 1400 and 1600. Renaissance art was driven by the notion of 'humanism' that downplayed religious and secular dogma, attaching greater importance to the individual. Italian artists attempted to revive the classical Greek and Roman art forms and styles every bit a response to the courtly International Gothic mode that prevailed in the fourteen^th century. Fine art was infused with greater realism, and consequent attending to detail, and besides the  mastery of the technique of creating illusions in painting by introducing 'depth' in picture and other components such as Chiaroscuro, Sfumato, Foreshortening, and Quadratura. In this context, the usage of the quote by da Vinci at the outset of my newspaper becomes important as it is in the Renaissance that aspects of low-cal and dark or shade invade the space of the artist's sail, with larger manifestations in Mannerism and Baroque art.

In the Renaissance calorie-free was a tool that artists used to define their subject matters, delineate them and bring out a certain sense of realism in the picture. Their works explore the contrasts between light and darkness, and remain conspicuously defined within sharp boundaries. Low-cal contributes not just to illumination but also to the clarity of the subject matter and the detailing of it. Light to an extent even controlled the forms of the subject thing. The technique of contrasting light and night, called "Chiaroscuro" (Italian light-dark), demonstrated the skill of an artist in the direction of shadows to create a three-dimensional effect in a painting.

 Fig.1, The Tribute Money, Masaccio. One of the early usages of Chiaroscuro that was further developed by Leonardo da Vinci and Michaelangelo, discussed later in the newspaper.

Gradually into the 17^th century, light became a subject in itself. Mannerist painters and subsequently Baroque artists used farthermost intense contrasts between light and dark, nearly obscuring their subjects to lend drama and mystery to the paintings. If we come across Renaissance paintings and Mannerist ones in chronological club, it will be inferred that from the terminate of the 1600's more and more emphasis was laid on darkness. Night areas dominated the sheet, while light took a backseat. The paintings of 17^th century artists express a definite stylistic trend called the "pittura tenebrosa"- a compositional technique where big areas of the paintings are immersed in darkness, sometimes an absolute black, to plunge certain parts of the paradigm into obscurity, leaving only one or more than points of illumination(due south). (Fig.ii)

Fig. two, David and Goliath, Caravaggio. Extreme contrasts betwixt light and dark is seen, and figures merge into the background. Caravaggio was the foremost exponent of Tenebrism in Baroque fine art.

The aim of this paper is to trace the utilization of calorie-free in Renaissance paintings and its subsequent transition into Mannerism and Baroque art, juxtaposing the two "The Last Supper" paintings past Leonardo da Vinci and Tintoretto respectively. The principle focus remains on Leonardo da Vinci's notes and observations regarding light and shadow. The concluding section deals with how somewhen, 'darkness' became the focus of fine art and artists.

There are very few works centered on the apply of light in history of art, although lighting forms a crucial gene in painting. The most essential innovation of the 16^th and 17^th century art is the "discovery of darkness" or the discovery of nights", connected to the mode of using light. At that place are a number of means in which low-cal affects or interacts with artwork, from how a slice is lit, to deliberately incorporating the interaction of light within the piece of work. Leonardo da Vinci writes in his Notebooks- "Darkness is the absence of lite. Shadow is the diminution of light." He further asserts- "The ancestry and ends of shadow lie betwixt the light and darkness and may exist infinitely diminished and infinitely increased. Shadow is the ways by which bodies display their form. The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail simply for shadow." It was the use of calorie-free and shadow that made his paintings revolutionary than lines and perspective. He wrote that light and shade should blend 'without lines or borders in the manner of smoke', giving rise to the term- "sfumato", pregnant 'seen equally if through smoke'. While The High Renaissance painters such as Raphael, Michelangelo and da Vinci used chiaroscuro to its best (Fig.3), Baroque artists such equally Rubens, Ribera, Tintoretto, El Greco have gifted us numerous pictures of nights, moonlit landscapes etc. The characteristic typical of the "Maniera tenebrosa" is the use of condensed light, giving the motion picture an impression of an artificial light that is possible only past employing active darkness in the greater part of the canvass. Such darkness is active both artistically and psychologically and introduces an element of mystery, drama and ambiguity. The contrast with darkness gives to the light a metaphysical and dynamic quality, bringing out the emotion and desolation of the artwork. (Fig.four)

Fig.3, The Last Judgment, Michelangelo. In this fresco, the artist uses colour and lite to class silhouettes. This is an example of a High Renaissance painting with Mannerist tendencies.

Fig.4, The Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew, Jusepe de Ribera. The manipulation of light and darkness brings out the drama and pathos in the painting. The artist has employed techniques of tenebrism here.

The 17^th century historiography and theory of art barely touch upon the topic of low-cal and shadow. To know more most the utilization of low-cal in art, one needs to go back to speculations about low-cal in medieval philosophy. Medieval scientist Robert Grosseteste blends Neo-Platonist theories of emanation and aspects of Aristotle's cosmology in his treatise, "On Calorie-free". The effects of light became particularly important to artisans every bit they frequently associated lite with their theories of colours. In the 12^thursday, thirteen^th and 14^th century the symbolic meaning of light pervaded theology, philosophy and cosmology. Light was considered the first principle of 'beingness' that prevailed in the unabridged earth. Medieval thinkers considered Light to be God or emanated from God. Plotinus, the ancient philosopher, though not a Christian, believed that God was Low-cal – "The unproblematic dazzler of a color is derived from a form that dominates the obscurity of matter and from the presence of an incorporeal low-cal that is reason and idea" (Plotinus, I.half dozen). The incorporeal light, for the Christians, is God's light and gives splendor to the whole of cosmos. Lite is what allows the beauty of objects, especially their color, to become illuminated, in social club to brandish their beauty to the fullest. Pseudo-Dionysus follows up on these thoughts, "And what of the dominicus's rays? Light comes from the Adept, and light is an prototype of this archetypal Adept. Thus the Good is also praised past the name 'Light', just as an archetype is revealed in its image" (Pseudo-Dionysius, 74). Light was an important condition for beauty. On the other hand, darkness was perceived as evil, negation and the ugly.  This concept changed very slowly and gradually in the Renaissance. The Neo-Platonists of the Quattrocento believed in the medieval metaphysical aesthetics of low-cal. All of Ficino's cosmography rests on "Divine Lite". Calorie-free was the highest value and darkness a heavy inert matter. Humanist and art theorist Leone B. Alberti had said that human beings like bright things by nature and that the night and black should be avoided. The humanism of the Renaissance period chosen for deeper speculations and observations of oneself and the surroundings, and thus shadow was discovered. Every solid object, when exposed to light, produced a shadow. This observation interested both artists and scientists alike. Leonardo da Vinci was both an artist and a scientist and the evolution of the science of low-cal is attributed to him. Afterwards, the aesthetics propagated past him was given a new shape by Caravaggio and his followers some hundred years later. Vinci observes in his notes- "No substance can be comprehended without calorie-free and shade; calorie-free and shade are caused by calorie-free." He studied condensed light and brash against the use of information technology as he regarded it to exist of niggling use to painters. Chiaroscuro introduced by Vinci (from his observations of nature and rules of geometry) developed in the later on years of Florentine Renaissance. While the northern school of artists used low-cal and shade to increment tone of color, the Florentine and Roman schoolhouse of painters used it to assign realism and enhance plasticity of figures and objects, further delineating shapes and sizes. After Leonardo, information technology was the treatises of Gian Paolo Lomazzo that marked the development of light in fine art. He dealt with light more comprehensively and divided light into- Primary and Secondary calorie-free, of which once again, the onetime can exist either Natural Lite (from the sun), Metaphysical or Divine Light (from an angel or emanated from a holy person) or Artificial Light (from a torch or candle inside the picture). Divine Light to him appears to be condensed, and examples of this tin exist constitute in religious paintings of the 16^thursday and 17^th century.

Fig.5, The Mocking of Christ, Valentin de Boulogne.

Later, this technique was adult by deepening contrast and increasing darkness. An activating gloom prevailed in the canvas that got heightened in 17^th century art. At times the background is just black- dark and impenetrable (Fig. 6) and serves examples of dramatic tenebrism.

Fig. 6, Crucifixion, Alonso Cano.

In the adjacent section of the newspaper I shall deal with the painting- "The Concluding Supper" by both Leonardo da Vinci (High Renaissance) and Tintoretto (Baroque), and concentrate on the differential employ of lighting and darkness in the ii.

The Last Supper(s) – A comment on color and light.

The Last Supper of Jesus and the twelve apostles is a recurring field of study in Christian fine art. According to the Gospel information technology is the final meal that Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem earlier his Crucifixion. Depictions of the Last Supper can be dated back to early Christianity and can be found in the Catacombs of Rome (Fig.vii). Past the Renaissance, The Terminal Supper became a favourite subject in Italian art. Information technology has been depicted in both Eastern and Western Churches. Artists such as Giotto, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Fra Angelico, Rubens, Boulogne and many others have painted scenes from the meal. For the convenience of this paper, I have chosen the paintings past Leonardo da Vinci and Tintoretto as in these one finds clear distinctions in the projection of light and color.

Fig.7. A Paleochristian fresco of a feast in the Catacombs of St. Domitilla, Rome.

Michael Ladwein in his "Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper: A Cosmic Drama and an Human action of Redemption" writes that Leonardo's involvement with the Terminal Supper motif can exist traced as far back as 1481. In that twelvemonth he painted his Adoration of the Kings, a work that for the first time depicted human emotions by ways of facial expressions and circuitous gestures. Based on this it tin be called the forerunner of The Last Supper. Ladwein further asserts that Leonardo must have been familiar with the renditions past Castagno, Ghirlandaio, and Taddeo Gaddi and from the latter borrowed the image of the large table.

Fig.8, The Last Supper, Domenico Ghirlandaio. Similarities tin be institute with Leonardo da Vinci'southward rendition of it below, peculiarly the arches in the ceiling and also the windows that offer a view of the exterior.

Fig.9, The Last Supper past da Vinci.

Leonardo da Vinci, similar Brunelleschi experimented with perspective, but with emphasis on light. The Last Supper is his capolavoro in its meticulous explorations of lite and optics and the careful rendering of the figures casting shadows upon one some other. Leonardo da Vinci not simply attends to the refraction and reflection of light, but also considers the imperfections inherent in optical perception of the slice. It "embodies Leonardo'southward longstanding preoccupation with the science of optics and acoustics…portraying…the outward motility" (Marani, 2003).

Fig.10. The 1498 painting housed in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.

In his notebooks, da Vinci describes the figures commenting, "some other lays his hand on the tabular array and is looking. Some other blows [air out of] his mouth. Another leans frontward to see the speaker shading his eyes with his paw. Another draws dorsum behind the ane who leans forwards, and sees the speaker between the wall and the man who is leaning". He further states, "… all bodies, in proportion as they are nearer to, or farther from, the source of light, will produce longer or shorter derived shadows". Thus, Vinci's organization of figures is translated into an interpretation of the move of light in the painting. From the land of the painting today, after numerous washings and restorations, information technology is impossible to understand the original atmospheric effect. A shut observation of the painting will show that the painting is mainly lit by the three columns of open up spaces behind, equally in Madonna of the Rocks. The three dimensional dialogue of lite and shade is nowadays emphatically to present a pictorial reality. Judas is seen in a shadow, and Christ is the key figure and the point of illumination too. The whole crepuscular mis-en-scene recalls the setting of the text- dusk. Hence, to some art historians and critics the correct natural lighting is essential for viewing the painting.

The correct natural lighting is considered to be late afternoon or early evening, when the calorie-free would come from above and the left and a leave one-thirds of the sheet in shadows to the viewer's left. A different lighting would disturb the balance. Whatsoever viewer would be able to understand that the colour on the left is of greater strength, so is the presence of shadow. On the other paw, the right side of the sail is much softer causing the draperies to recede into a silverish grey. John Shearman writes that the technique of increasing plasticity and colour in the weakly lit part was probably borrowed by Vinci from Masaccio and extended to the office of the wall that is really in shadow. Thus the gesticulations are more emphasized on the right side of the painting. The distribution of light and shade is to keep with the original setting of the refectory where the lite from the afternoon sun entered through the high windows on the western side and fell on the opposite wall.

Leonardo da Vinci'south painting seems to be classical and reposed, the disciples radiating away from Christ in an almost mathematical symmetry. Although at that place is a perspective involved, the scene appears as flat in terms of phase setting. Vinci attempted to draw the various emotions and reactions of his disciples to Jesus' news that ane of them would betray him yet information technology appears as a beautiful, calm rendition of the meal. Shearman observes that the chromatic effect from one side to another appears perfect if seen in natural light, but at that place is absence of articulated patterns in its distribution every bit there is in Ghirlandaio'southward The Last Supper, every bit the colour planes are not unified by repetition. Probably over the years the colours have lost their particularity and original shade and tone, yet in the motion-picture show there is homogeneity, a spontaneous harmony and tonal equality. Most of the figures in the painting wear blue. Likewise, there is cherry-red in contrast to it. The evenness of blood-red is paired with the enveloping bluish, the 'lustre of life' with the 'lustre of soul' in the words of Rudolf Steiner. Christ is dressed in red and draped in blue while John is dressed in bluish and draped in red. This is a deliberate effort to bring John even closer to Christ, emphasizing on his position adjacent to Christ. To the correct side Philip, forth with John and James is seen to be wearing a red cloak and bluish robe. Very deftly Vinci uses lesser tones of red to keep up with the play of light. The shade of crimson becomes weak further to the right and disappears into the crimson-chocolate-brown robe of Thaddeus and pinkish red of Simon'south cloak. Evenness in distribution of colour is seen as well in the other appearances of blue and green in their lighter and darker nuances.

The very aforementioned painting in the hands of Tintoretto some hundred years subsequently in 1594 becomes highly dramatic and stylised as angels with halos of light share canvas space with the humans against the dark background. A comparison of both the paintings reveals the development of artistic styles through the Renaissance. The human being figures in Tintoretto's rendition are overwritten past the appearances of ghostly beings as calorie-free and darkness is dramatically tortured. This sets the tone for Baroque art.

Fig.11, The Last Supper, Jacopo Tintoretto. Basilica di San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice.

The setting is a cavern like room with strange dramatic use of perspective. The tiles on the floor can be understood owing to the contrasts of light and dark. Both flooring and ceiling seem to recede into the distance, another effect of the exploitation of light and shadow. Light against dark, dramatic perspective, confusion, ambiguity, grandeur, exaggerated emotions and highly idealized portrayal of figures highlight the painting. The figures are portrayed against a groundwork of intense darkness but the figures themselves are illuminated by a bright searching low-cal, which remains the sole source of illumination in the picture, giving information technology a three dimensional effect. This can be achieved by means of harsh and exquisite control of chiaroscuro- an issue that Caravaggio introduced as "Tenebrism" (Latin 'tenebrae'- darkness).

On close observation information technology will be found that the lightest part of the painting is Christ's head every bit the halo emanating from information technology is the brightest. Christ's caput is heavily contrasted confronting those of the disciples who also have a glow around their heads. Along with the Apostles in that location are secondary characters also. The angels too shimmer with light and everything appears to recede into the background, particularly the table that vanishes into space in a steep diagonal. Another source of light is the lamp at the height left of the picture. No external light is to be plant in the painting, suggesting that perhaps Tintoretto on purpose deprived the painting of a natural calorie-free to go far wait similar a 'night moving picture', in line with Mannerist tendencies. Thus low-cal appears to come up into obscurity from both the light on the ceiling and Jesus' Aureole. Scenes illuminated past Christ's halo are, once again, a recurrent trope in Christian fine art. The darkness of paintings deepened from the late 16^thursday century, with points of illumination being a real source of light (sunday or heaven), a torch or an oil lamp (every bit is the case in Tintoretto's rendition of the meal). In about of religious painting the place and time of the painting is undecipherable, thus keeping the viewer in the dark about whether information technology is 24-hour interval or night and if the painting is set outdoors or indoors. The source of light is mostly invisible- either external, projecting only a shaft of brightness. Or it is internal, within the motion picture, emanating from The Child or The Holy Spirits or the angels. Keeping in heed Lomazzo's observations, the painting is thus lit past the Metaphysical or Divine light. In any case, whether the light shines from a candle or a lamp, (Fig. 12) it carries some symbolic meaning. Information technology could signify ignorance or spiritual illumination, while low-cal emanated from Christ's halo is definitely the holy light signifying knowledge, salvation and the likes of such religious connotation (Fig.13). Maria Rzepinska writes that these symbolic meanings of light tin be tin can be perceived just considering the calorie-free is contrasted against farthermost darkness, the intensity of which accounts for the degree of intensity of low-cal and for the diverseness of its variants.

Fig.12, The Evening Schoolhouse, Gerrit Dou. This scene is illuminated by the light of the candle and lamp, with no other external low-cal present.

Fig.13, Salvator Mundi, Titian. Christ's halo illuminates a portion of the canvas.

Tintoretto staged his stories like theatre directors. The employment of unreal, stage-like lighting with dramatized effects of lights and shadow, and highly contained perspectives, daring foreshortenings, altogether distance the representation from real life. Religious scene is transformed into an enthralling scenario. The colours used in the painting are overridden by the techniques of lighting, though the red and bluish of Christ'southward and other disciples' wear can exist fairly understood. Since almost of the film is in shadows, very night shades of colours have been used in the foreground whereas the women carrying plates in the distance take a weaker shade of grayness in their clothing. The figures to the extreme right of the painting are barely visible, the colours incomprehensible as they are totally shrouded in darkness with blank minimum lighting to attest to their presence. In contrast to Leonardo da Vinci'southward balanced, symmetrical frontal limerick, Tintoretto'south pictorial space in given dynamic quality with radically asymmetrical composition and articulation, linear arabesques linked to a forceful plasticity. He introduces a new conception of spatial depth and achieves the "spectacular". In Leonardo'due south painting Jesus was human being and divine at the same time, as described in Christian faith. This peaceful co-existence falls apart in Tintoretto's painting as a lot of tension, hustle and bustle is seen in the foreground with the theological story looming largely in the depths of the painting. Owing to the lighting and the vitality of the pictorial structure the two levels are united while the barely visible band of angels above the whole scene lends compositional equilibrium to an extent. Helen Gardner writes in her Art Through the Ages, "The ability of this dramatic scene to engage viewers was well in keeping with Counter-Reformation ethics and the Catholic Church'due south belief in the didactic nature of religious fine art."

The specific structuring of Renaissance and Baroque paintings, in which shadow and darkness testify to be every bit important as light, brings in a new aesthetics. This concept, if not entirely unknown previously, was never dealt with in the manner in which the 15^th, 16^th and 17^thursday century artists did. Early on techniques of chiaroscuro drew on traditions of illuminated manuscripts or miniatures of the late Roman Purple manuscripts on purple parchment. Appolodoros of five^th century Athens is ascribed to the first usage of shadow-painting in ancient Greece chosen "skiagraphia". Very primitive course of shading is plant in Byzantine fine art and then the West refined the technique in the late Middle Ages. Compositional chiaroscuro gained a considerable impetus from the visions of the Nascence of Jesus of Saint Bridget of Sweden, a very popular mystic in northern Europe. She described baby Jesus as emitting light- a phenomenon that has repeatedly been portrayed in religious fine art. After Saint Bridget's claim, chiaroscuro became a very important technique in the subsequent years. Hugo van der Goes as well used the holy lite as the primary source of illumination, every bit a issue relying on chiaroscuro. But in European painting the technique was commencement used in its full potential past Leonardo da Vinci in his Admiration of Magi (1481). In Michelangelo's paintings besides bodies and figures seem to be realistic, equally if they are only about to motility. A classic example of optical illusion created by low-cal, shade and perspective is The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. The painting'south optics seem to follow the viewer irrespective of the management from which he views it. No thing how the painting is seen- standing parallel to information technology or diagonally, even upside down, the eyes seem to wait directly dorsum at the viewer. This technique called the 'gazing eyes' is obtained past immensely practiced mastery of color, perspective, use of planes, and most chiefly- shadows. Meanwhile, Mannerist tendencies had already crept into Michelangelo and Raphael's art by the early on 16^th century.

It is common knowledge that the treatment of darkness reached its almost dramatic and exaggerated form in the hands of Caravaggio, even so it would be imprudent to term all of Mannerist and Baroque art as an influence of Caravaggio. Referring back to Maria Rzepinska, information technology can exist said that Caravaggio gave a forcible expression to a certain trend in European art that introduced darkness, inseparable from lite, as an iconic and psychological factor of utmost importance. That Caravaggio had immense influence over contemporary and afterward artists is proved from the presence of a school of painters chosen the "Caravaggisti" (the likes of Jusepe Ribera, Battistello Caracciolo, Gerrit van Honthorst, Rembrandt and others), who had their loyalties with Caravaggism, especially considering its naturalism made it a perfect vehicle for Catholic Counter-Reformation Art (Fig.14). Tenebrism now became the dominant technique in the fine art of the tardily 16^th and early 17th century and connected well into the Baroque menses. Like the Renaissance, Baroque too developed outside Europe, in the Low Countries of the Netherlands, Holland and Spain. The end of the 17^th century saw a decline in the Bizarre style and also Italy as French republic became the new European power. As a result, a new and contrasting way of decorative art emerged, known every bit Rococo. The technique was somewhat maintained by painters similar Fragonard, Watteau and the likes, until Expressionism made its way into the artistic scene.

Fig. 14, The Storm on the Ocean of Galilee, Rembrandt.

In conclusion, I would like to quote da Vinci again- "A painter should begin every canvass with a launder of black, considering all things in nature are dark except where exposed by the calorie-free." As Maria Rzepinska observes, the issue of calorie-free and darkness was not purely artistic in grapheme, equally it penetrated into the intellectual life of the times- religion, philosophy and natural science. The Renaissance and the Baroque period can be said to be the but fourth dimension in European history and culture in which the phenomena of shadow and darkness aroused then much speculation and observation. Whether this issue had any importance earlier is non known. In the Renaissance, astronomy gained new theories and explanations; eclipses and phases of the moon were studied. This might be seen to be in concurrence with the development of the Tenebrist tendencies where darkness was used as a positive value. The phenomenon once associated with negation, evil and bad was at present equated with lite, the symbol of everything good. Darkness, in contrast with lite, was seen to bring out the illumination and magnificence of light. The religious, cosmic, metaphysical, philosophical, intellectual, existential symbolism of light and darkness was expressed wholly through the field of study matter and techniques of paintings by Renaissance, Mannerist, and Baroque artists such every bit- Hugo van der Goes, Vinci, Michelangelo, Tintoretto, Georges de la Tour, El Greco, Boulogne, Caravaggio and other Castilian artists, going well beyond geographic and scholastic boundaries.

References:

• Rzepinska, Maria. "Tenebrism in Baroque Painting and Its ideological Background." Artibus et Historiae 7:xiii(1986): 91-112. http://www. jstor.org/stable/1483250 (accessed November 18, 2015).
• Shearman, John. "Leonardo'southward Colour and Chiaroscuro".Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte 25:1(1962): 13-47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1481484 (accessed November 17, 2015).
• Da Vinci, Leonardo. "Notebooks" http://www.books.google.co.in. (accessed November 18, 2015).
• Ladwein, Michael. "Leonardo da Vinci, The Concluding Supper: A Cosmic Drama and an Deed of Redemption." http://www.books.google.co.in. (accessed Nov 18, 2015).
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• Encyclopedia Britannica. http://britannica.com.
• Visual Arts Encyclopedia. http://www.visual-arts-cork.com.
• Panofsky,Erwin. "Renaissance and Renascences in Western Fine art". Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksells, 1960.
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